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Macroevolution

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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border:2px solid #90ee90"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#90ee90;padding:0.2em;font-size:175%;font-weight:bold"><a href="Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="Darwin's_finches" title="Darwin's finches">Darwin's finches</a> by <a href="John_Gould" title="John Gould">John Gould</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.55em; background-color: transparent;">

<ul><li><a href="Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles" title="Index of evolutionary biology articles">Index</a></li>

<li><a href="Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_evolution" title="Outline of evolution">Outline</a></li></ul>

</div>

<ul><li><a href="Glossary_of_evolutionary_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of evolutionary biology">Glossary</a></li>

<li><a href="Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_life" title="History of life">History</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Processes and outcomes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Variation</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">Diversity</a></li>

<li><a href="Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li>

<li><a href="Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li>

<li><a href="Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></li>

<li><a href="Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiation</a></li>

<li><a href="Cooperation_(evolution)" title="Cooperation (evolution)">Co-operation</a></li>

<li><a href="Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Coextinction" title="Coextinction">Coextinction</a></li>

<li><a href="Contingency_(evolutionary_biology)" title="Contingency (evolutionary biology)">Contingency</a></li>

<li><a href="Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergence</a></li>

<li><a href="Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergence</a></li>

<li><a href="Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">Parallel evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a></li></ul>

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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Natural history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li>

<li><a href="Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life">Timeline of evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a>

<ul><li><a href="Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Phylogeny</a></li>

<li><a href="Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li>

<li><a href="Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li>

<li><a href="Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Classification</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Evolutionary taxonomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li>

<li><a href="Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</a></li></ul>

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</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">History of evolutionary theory</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Overview</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_ideas_of_the_Renaissance_and_Enlightenment" title="Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment">Renaissance</a></li>

<li><a href="Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">Before Darwin</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a></li>

<li><a href="On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">Origin of Species</a></li>

<li><a href="The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">Before synthesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Current_research_in_evolutionary_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Current research in evolutionary biology">Current research</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_speciation" title="History of speciation">History of speciation</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a> (<a href="Timeline_of_paleontology" title="Timeline of paleontology">timeline</a>)</li></ul>

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</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Fields and applications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist">

<ul><li><a href="Applications_of_evolution" title="Applications of evolution">Applications of evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Evolutionary aesthetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary anthropology</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_computation" title="Evolutionary computation">Evolutionary computation</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary economics</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_game_theory" title="Evolutionary game theory">Evolutionary game theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Evolutionary linguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">Evolutionary neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_physiology" title="Evolutionary physiology">Evolutionary physiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Experimental_evolution" title="Experimental evolution">Experimental evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Invasion_genetics" title="Invasion genetics">Invasion genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Island_biogeography" class="mw-redirect" title="Island biogeography">Island biogeography</a></li>

<li><a href="Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Selective breeding</a></li>

<li><a href="Laboratory_experiments_of_speciation" title="Laboratory experiments of speciation">Speciation experiments</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Universal_Darwinism" title="Universal Darwinism">Universal Darwinism</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Social implications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist">

<ul><li><a href="Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_as_fact_and_theory" title="Evolution as fact and theory">Evolution as fact and theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory" title="Social effects of evolutionary theory">Social effects</a></li>

<li><a href="Rejection_of_evolution_by_religious_groups" title="Rejection of evolution by religious groups">Creation–evolution controversy</a></li>

<li><a href="Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Objections_to_evolution" title="Objections to evolution">Objections to evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Level_of_support_for_evolution" title="Level of support for evolution">Level of support</a></li>

<li><a href="Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature-nurture controversy</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist">

<ul><li> <a href="Portal%3AEvolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology portal</a></li>

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Macroevolution comprises the evolutionary processes and patterns which occur at and above the <a href="Species" title="Species">species</a> level.<a href="#cite_note-Saupe2021a-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gould2002a-3">[3]</a> In contrast, <a href="Microevolution" title="Microevolution">microevolution</a> is evolution occurring within the population(s) of a single species. In other words, microevolution is the scale of evolution that is limited to intraspecific (within-species) variation, while macroevolution extends to interspecific (between-species) variation.<a href="#cite_note-:1-4">[4]</a> The evolution of new species (<a href="Speciation" title="Speciation">speciation</a>) is an example of macroevolution. This is the common definition for 'macroevolution' used by contemporary scientists.<a href="#cite_note-6">[a]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[b]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[c]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[d]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[e]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[f]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[g]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[h]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[i]</a> However, the exact usage of the term has varied throughout history.<a href="#cite_note-:1-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-DAOAL1-18">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-20">[11]</a>

Macroevolution addresses the evolution of species and higher taxonomic groups (<a href="Genera" class="mw-redirect" title="Genera">genera</a>, <a href="Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">families</a>, <a href="Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">orders</a>, etc) and uses evidence from <a href="Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Rolland2022a-5">[5]</a> the fossil record,<a href="#cite_note-GEOL331a-16">[9]</a> and molecular biology to answer how different taxonomic groups exhibit different <a href="Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">species diversity</a> and/or <a href="Phenotypic_disparity" title="Phenotypic disparity">morphological disparity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gregory2008a-21">[12]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_and_changing_meaning_of_the_term">Origin and changing meaning of the term</h2></div>

After <a href="Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> published his book On the Origin of Species<a href="#cite_note-22">[13]</a> in 1859, evolution was widely accepted to be real phenomenon. However, many scientists still disagreed with Darwin that <a href="Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> was the primary mechanism to explain evolution. Prior to the <a href="Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">modern synthesis</a>, during the period between the 1880s to the 1930s (dubbed the ‘<a href="Eclipse_of_Darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Eclipse of Darwinism">Eclipse of Darwinism</a>’) many scientists argued in favor of alternative explanations. These included ‘<a href="Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">orthogenesis</a>’, and among its proponents was the Russian entomologist <a href="Yuri_Filipchenko" title="Yuri Filipchenko">Yuri A. Filipchenko</a>.

Filipchenko appears to have been the one who coined the term ‘macroevolution’ in his book Variabilität und Variation (1927).<a href="#cite_note-:2-20">[11]</a> While introducing the concept, he claimed that the field of genetics is insufficient to explain “the origin of higher systematic units” above the species level.

<div class="text-and-translation" style="padding:1em 3em 1em 3em"><div style="display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap; gap:3em"><div style="flex: 1 0 300px;"> Auf die Weise hebt die heutige Genetik zweifellos den Schleier von der Evolution der Biotypen, Jordanone und Linneone (eine Art Mikroevolution), dagegen jene Evolution der höheren systematischen Gruppen, welche von jeher die Geister besonders für sich in Anspruch genommen hat (eine Art Makroevolution), liegt gänzlich außerhalb ihres Gesichtsfeldes, und dieser Umstand scheint uns die von uns oben angeführten Erwägungen über das Fehlen einer inneren Beziehung zwischen der Genetik und der Deszendenzlehre, die sich ja hauptsächlich mit der Makroevolution befaßt, nur zu unterstreichen.</div><div style="flex: 1 0 300px;"> In this way, modern genetics undoubtedly lifts the veil from the evolution of biotypes, Jordanones and Linneones [i.e. variations within a species]<a href="#cite_note-BiotJordLinn-24">[j]</a> (a kind of microevolution), but that evolution of the higher systematic groups, which has always particularly occupied the minds of men (a kind of macroevolution), lies entirely outside its field of vision, and this circumstance seems to us only to emphasize the considerations we have given above about the lack of an inner relationship between genetics and the theory of descent, which is mainly concerned with macroevolution. </div></div>— Yuri Filipchenko, Variabilität und Variation (1927), pages 93-94<a href="#cite_note-:2-20">[11]</a>

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Filipchenko believed that the origin of families must require the sudden appearance of new traits which are different in greater magnitude compared to the characters required for the origin of a genus or species. However, this view is no longer consistent with contemporary understanding of evolution. Furthermore, the <a href="Taxonomic_rank#Significance_and_problems" title="Taxonomic rank">Linnaean ranks</a> of ‘genus’ (and higher) are not real entities but arbitrary concepts.<a href="#cite_note-Hendricks2014a-25">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-DAOAL1-18">[10]</a>

The term macroevolution was adopted by Filipchenko's protégé <a href="Theodosius_Dobzhansky" title="Theodosius Dobzhansky">Theodosius Dobzhansky</a> in his book ‘Genetics und the Origin of Species’ (1937) and in The Material Basis of Evolution (1940) by the geneticist <a href="Richard_Goldschmidt" title="Richard Goldschmidt">Richard Goldschmidt</a>, a close friend of Filipchenko.<a href="#cite_note-Adams1990a-26">[16]</a> Goldschmidt suggested <a href="Saltational_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Saltational evolution">saltational evolutionary changes</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[18]</a> which found a moderate revival in the hopeful monster concept of <a href="Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">evolutionary developmental biology</a> (or evo-devo).<a href="#cite_note-29">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[20]</a> Occasionally such dramatic changes can lead to novel features that survive.

As an alternative to saltational evolution, <a href="Dobzhansky" class="mw-redirect" title="Dobzhansky">Dobzhansky</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[21]</a> suggested that the difference between macroevolution and microevolution reflects essentially a difference in time-scales, and that macroevolutionary changes were simply the sum of microevolutionary changes over geologic time. This view became broadly accepted in the middle of the last century but it has been challenged by a number of scientists who claim that microevolution is necessary but not sufficient to explain macroevolution. This is the decoupled view (see below).<a href="#cite_note-Gould2002a-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-4">[4]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Microevolution_vs_Macroevolution">Microevolution vs Macroevolution</h2></div>

There has been considerable debate regarding the connection between microevolution and macroevolution.<a href="#cite_note-Saupe2021a-1">[1]</a>

The ‘Extrapolation’ view holds that macroevolution is merely cumulative microevolution.

The ‘Decoupled’ view holds that there are separate macroevolutionary processes that cannot be sufficiently explained by microevolutionary processes alone.<a href="#cite_note-Gould2002a-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Levinton2001-33">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rolland2022a-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Simons2002a-34">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Erwin2001a-35">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Adams1990a-26">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-DAOAL1-18">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Moran2022a-36">[26]</a>

Within microevolution, the evolutionary process of changing heritable characteristics (e.g. changes in allele frequencies) is described by <a href="Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a>, with mechanisms such as <a href="Mutation" title="Mutation">mutation</a>, <a href="Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>, and <a href="Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">genetic drift</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:0-2">[2]</a> and <a href="Speciation" title="Speciation">speciation</a> (e.g. <a href="Sympatric" class="mw-redirect" title="Sympatric">sympatric</a> and <a href="Allopatric" class="mw-redirect" title="Allopatric">allopatric</a> speciation), <a href="Phyletic_gradualism" title="Phyletic gradualism">phyletic gradualism</a> and <a href="Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">punctuated equilibrium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Saupe2021a-1">[1]</a> Macroevolution asks how higher taxonomic groups (<a href="Genera" class="mw-redirect" title="Genera">genera</a>, <a href="Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">families</a>, <a href="Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">orders</a>, etc) have evolved across geography and vast spans of <a href="Geological_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological time">geological time</a>. Important questions and topics include:

<ul><li>How different species are related to each other is addressed by <a href="Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetics</a>.</li>

<li>The rates of evolutionary change and across time in the <a href="Fossil_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil record">fossil record</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rolland2022a-5">[5]</a> Why do some groups experience a lot of change while others remain morphologically stable, as in <a href="Living_fossils" class="mw-redirect" title="Living fossils">living fossils</a>?<a href="#cite_note-Kin2014a-37">[27]</a></li>

<li><a href="Mass_extinctions" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass extinctions">Mass extinctions</a> and <a href="Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">evolutionary diversifications</a>,<a href="#cite_note-GEOL331a-16">[9]</a> e.g. the <a href="Permian-Triassic" class="mw-redirect" title="Permian-Triassic">Permian-Triassic</a> and <a href="End_Cretaceous" class="mw-redirect" title="End Cretaceous">Cretaceous-Paleogene</a> events, the <a href="Cambrian_Explosion" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambrian Explosion">Cambrian Explosion</a> and <a href="Cretaceous_Terrestrial_Revolution" title="Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution">Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution</a>.</li>

<li>Why different taxonomic groups (even in spite of having similar ages) exhibit different survival/extinction rates, <a href="Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">species diversity</a>, and/or <a href="Phenotypic_disparity" title="Phenotypic disparity">morphological disparity</a>.</li>

<li>Long-term trends in evolution, e.g. trends towards complexity or simplicity.<a href="#cite_note-Gregory2008a-21">[12]</a></li>

<li>How species and higher taxa have evolved, e.g. via <a href="Gene_duplication" title="Gene duplication">gene duplication</a>, <a href="Heterochrony" title="Heterochrony">heterochrony</a>, <a href="Evolutionary_developmental_biology#The_origins_of_novelty" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">novelty in evo-devo</a>, <a href="Facilitated_variation" title="Facilitated variation">facilitated variation</a>, and <a href="Constructive_neutral_evolution" title="Constructive neutral evolution">constructive neutral evolution</a>.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Macroevolutionary_processes">Macroevolutionary processes</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Speciation">Speciation</h3></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Speciation" title="Speciation">speciation</a></div>

According to the modern definition, the evolutionary transition from the ancestral to the daughter species is microevolutionary, because it results from selection (or, more generally, sorting) among varying organisms. However, speciation has also a macroevolutionary aspect, because it produces the interspecific variation species selection operates on.<a href="#cite_note-:1-4">[4]</a> Another macroevolutionary aspect of speciation is the rate at which it successfully occurs, analogous to reproductive success in microevolution.<a href="#cite_note-:0-2">[2]</a>

Speciation is the process in which populations within one species change to an extent at which they become <a href="Reproductive_isolation" title="Reproductive isolation">reproductively isolated</a>, that is, they cannot interbreed anymore. However, this classical concept has been challenged and more recently, a phylogenetic or evolutionary <a href="Species" title="Species">species</a> concept has been adopted. Their main criteria for new species is to be diagnosable and <a href="Monophyly" title="Monophyly">monophyletic</a>, that is, they form a clearly defined lineage.<a href="#cite_note-38">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[29]</a>

<a href="Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> first discovered that speciation can be extrapolated so that species not only evolve into new species, but also into new <a href="Genus" title="Genus">genera</a>, families and other groups of animals. In other words, macroevolution is reducible to microevolution through selection of traits over long periods of time.<a href="#cite_note-40">[30]</a> In addition, some scholars have argued that selection at the species level is important as well.<a href="#cite_note-41">[31]</a> The advent of genome sequencing enabled the discovery of gradual genetic changes both during speciation but also across higher taxa. For instance, the evolution of humans from ancestral primates or other mammals can be traced to numerous but individual mutations.<a href="#cite_note-42">[32]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_of_new_organs_and_tissues">Evolution of new organs and tissues</h3></div>

One of the main questions in evolutionary biology is how new structures evolve, such as new <a href="Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">organs</a>. Macroevolution is often thought to require the evolution of structures that are 'completely new'. However, fundamentally novel structures are not necessary for dramatic evolutionary change. As can be seen in <a href="Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate evolution</a>, most "new" organs are actually not new—they are simply modifications of previously existing organs. For instance, the evolution of <a href="Mammal" title="Mammal">mammal</a> diversity in the past 100 million years has not required any major innovation.<a href="#cite_note-43">[33]</a> All of this diversity can be explained by modification of existing organs, such as the evolution of <a href="Tusk" title="Tusk">elephant tusks</a> from <a href="Incisor" title="Incisor">incisors</a>. Other examples include <a href="Bird_wing" title="Bird wing">wings</a> (modified limbs), <a href="Feather" title="Feather">feathers</a> (modified <a href="Reptile_scale" title="Reptile scale">reptile scales</a>),<a href="#cite_note-44">[34]</a> <a href="Lung" title="Lung">lungs</a> (modified <a href="Swim_bladder" title="Swim bladder">swim bladders</a>, e.g. found in <a href="Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>),<a href="#cite_note-45">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[36]</a> or even the <a href="Heart" title="Heart">heart</a> (a muscularized segment of a <a href="Vein" title="Vein">vein</a>).<a href="#cite_note-47">[37]</a>

The same concept applies to the evolution of "novel" tissues. Even fundamental tissues such as <a href="Bone" title="Bone">bone</a> can evolve from combining existing <a href="Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> (<a href="Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a>) with calcium phosphate (specifically, <a href="Hydroxyapatite" title="Hydroxyapatite">hydroxy-apatite</a>). This probably happened when certain cells that make collagen also accumulated calcium phosphate to get a proto-bone cell.<a href="#cite_note-48">[38]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolutionary_faunas">Evolutionary faunas</h3></div>

A macroevolutionary benchmark study is Sepkoski's<a href="#cite_note-49">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[40]</a> work on marine animal diversity through the Phanerozoic. His iconic diagram of the numbers of marine families from the Cambrian to the Recent illustrates the successive expansion and dwindling of three "<a href="Evolutionary_fauna" title="Evolutionary fauna">evolutionary faunas</a>" that were characterized by differences in origination rates and carrying capacities. Long-term ecological changes and major geological events are postulated to have played crucial roles in shaping these evolutionary faunas.<a href="#cite_note-Rojas2021a-51">[41]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stanley's_rule">Stanley's rule</h3></div>

Macroevolution is driven by differences between species in origination and extinction rates. Remarkably, these two factors are generally positively correlated: taxa that have typically high diversification rates also have high extinction rates. This observation has been described first by <a href="Steven_M._Stanley" title="Steven M. Stanley">Steven Stanley</a>, who attributed it to a variety of ecological factors.<a href="#cite_note-52">[42]</a> Yet, a positive correlation of origination and extinction rates is also a prediction of the <a href="Red_Queen_hypothesis" title="Red Queen hypothesis">Red Queen hypothesis</a>, which postulates that evolutionary progress (increase in fitness) of any given species causes a decrease in fitness of other species, ultimately driving to extinction those species that do not adapt rapidly enough.<a href="#cite_note-53">[43]</a> High rates of origination must therefore correlate with high rates of extinction.<a href="#cite_note-:1-4">[4]</a> Stanley's rule, which applies to almost all taxa and geologic ages, is therefore an indication for a dominant role of biotic interactions in macroevolution.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_of_multicellularity">Evolution of multicellularity</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellular organism</a></div>

The evolution of multicellular organisms is one of the major breakthroughs in evolution. The first step of converting a unicellular organism into a <a href="Animal" title="Animal">metazoan</a> (a multicellular organism) is to allow cells to attach to each other. This can be achieved by one or a few <a href="Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a>. In fact, many <a href="Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> form multicellular assemblies, e.g. <a href="Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a> or <a href="Myxobacteria" title="Myxobacteria">myxobacteria</a>. Another species of bacteria, Jeongeupia sacculi, form well-ordered sheets of cells, which ultimately develop into a bulbous structure.<a href="#cite_note-54">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[45]</a> Similarly, unicellular yeast cells can become multicellular by a single mutation in the ACE2 gene, which causes the cells to form a branched multicellular form.<a href="#cite_note-56">[46]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_of_bat_wings">Evolution of bat wings</h3></div>

The wings of <a href="Bat" title="Bat">bats</a> have the same structural elements (bones) as any other five-fingered mammal (see <a href="Limb_development" title="Limb development">periodicity in limb development</a>). However, the finger bones in bats are dramatically elongated, so the question is how these bones became so long. It has been shown that certain growth factors such as <a href="Bone_morphogenetic_protein" title="Bone morphogenetic protein">bone morphogenetic proteins</a> (specifically <a href="Bone_morphogenetic_protein_2" title="Bone morphogenetic protein 2">Bmp2</a>) is over expressed so that it stimulates an elongation of certain bones. Genetic changes in the bat genome identified the changes that lead to this phenotype and it has been recapitulated in mice: when specific bat DNA is inserted in the mouse genome, recapitulating these mutations, the bones of mice grow longer.<a href="#cite_note-:4-57">[47]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Limb_loss_in_lizards_and_snakes">Limb loss in lizards and snakes</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Limbless_vertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Limbless vertebrates">Limbless vertebrates</a></div>

<a href="Snake" title="Snake">Snakes</a> evolved from <a href="Lizard" title="Lizard">lizards</a>. <a href="Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetic</a> analysis shows that snakes are actually nested within the <a href="Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">phylogenetic tree</a> of lizards, demonstrating that they have a common ancestor.<a href="#cite_note-58">[48]</a> This split happened about 180 million years ago and several intermediary <a href="Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a> are known to document the origin. In fact, limbs have been lost in numerous clades of <a href="Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a>, and there are cases of recent <a href="Limbless_vertebrate" title="Limbless vertebrate">limb loss</a>. For instance, the <a href="Skink" title="Skink">skink</a> genus <a href="Lerista" title="Lerista">Lerista</a> has lost limbs in multiple cases, with all possible intermediary steps, that is, there are species which have fully developed limbs, shorter limbs with 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 or no toes at all.<a href="#cite_note-59">[49]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_evolution">Human evolution</h3></div>

While human evolution from their primate ancestors did not require massive morphological changes, our brain has sufficiently changed to allow human consciousness and intelligence. While the latter involves relatively minor morphological changes it did result in dramatic changes to <a href="Brain" title="Brain">brain function</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[50]</a> Thus, macroevolution does not have to be morphological, it can also be functional.

The study of human (brain) evolution benefits from the fact that <a href="Human_genome" title="Human genome">human</a> and <a href="Ape" title="Ape">ape</a> genomes are available so that <a href="Ancestral_sequence_reconstruction" title="Ancestral sequence reconstruction">the genomes of our common ancestor can be reconstructed</a>.<a href="#cite_note-61">[51]</a> Even though the precise genetic mechanisms that shaped the human brain are not known, the mutations involved in human brain evolution are largely known, given that the genes expressed in the brain are relatively well understood.<a href="#cite_note-62">[52]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_of_viviparity_in_lizards">Evolution of viviparity in lizards</h3></div>

Most lizards are egg-laying and thus need an environment that is warm enough to incubate their eggs. However, some species have evolved <a href="Viviparity" title="Viviparity">viviparity</a>, that is, they give birth to live young, as almost all <a href="Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> do. In several clades of lizards, egg-laying (oviparous) species have evolved into live-bearing ones, apparently with very little genetic change. For instance, a European common lizard, <a href="Viviparous_lizard" title="Viviparous lizard">Zootoca vivipara</a>, is viviparous throughout most of its range, but oviparous in the extreme southwest portion.<a href="#cite_note-63">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[54]</a> That is, within a single species, a radical change in reproductive behavior has happened. Similar cases are known from South American lizards of the genus <a href="Liolaemus" title="Liolaemus">Liolaemus</a> which have egg-laying species at lower altitudes, but closely related viviparous species at higher altitudes, suggesting that the switch from oviparous to viviparous reproduction does not require many genetic changes.<a href="#cite_note-65">[55]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_topics">Research topics</h2></div>

Subjects studied within macroevolution include:<a href="#cite_note-66">[56]</a>

<ul><li><a href="Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiations</a> such as the <a href="Cambrian_Explosion" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambrian Explosion">Cambrian Explosion</a>.</li>

<li>Changes in <a href="Biodiversity#Evolution_and_history" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> through time.</li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evo-devo</a> (the connection between evolution and <a href="Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">developmental biology</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Genome_evolution" title="Genome evolution">Genome evolution</a>, like <a href="Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a>, genome fusions in endosymbioses, and adaptive changes in genome size.</li>

<li><a href="Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Mass extinctions</a>.</li>

<li>Estimating <a href="Diversification_rates" title="Diversification rates">diversification rates</a>, including rates of <a href="Speciation" title="Speciation">speciation</a> and <a href="Extinction" title="Extinction">extinction</a>.</li>

<li>The debate between <a href="Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">punctuated equilibrium</a> and <a href="Gradualism" title="Gradualism">gradualism</a>.</li>

<li>The role of development in shaping evolution, particularly such topics as <a href="Heterochrony" title="Heterochrony">heterochrony</a> and <a href="Phenotypic_plasticity" title="Phenotypic plasticity">phenotypic plasticity</a>.</li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</a></li>

<li><a href="Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></li>

<li><a href="Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a></li>

<li><a href="Red_Queen_hypothesis" title="Red Queen hypothesis">Red Queen hypothesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></li>

<li><a href="Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li>

<li><a href="Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Rolland et al. (2023)<a href="#cite_note-Rolland2022a-5">[5]</a> in the introduction describe ‘microevolution’ and ‘macroevolution’ occurring at two different scales; below the species level and at/above the species level respectively: “Since the modern synthesis, many evolutionary biologists have focused their attention on evolution at one of two different timescales: microevolution, that is, the evolution of populations below the species level (in fields such as population genetics, phylogeography and quantitative genetics), or macroevolution, that is, the evolution of species or higher taxonomic levels (for example, phylogenetics, palaeobiology

and biogeography).”

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Saupe & Myers (2021)<a href="#cite_note-Saupe2021a-1">[1]</a> states: “Macroevolution is the study of patterns and processes associated with evolutionary change at and above the species level, and includes investigations of both evolutionary tempo and mode.”

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Michael Hautmann (2019)<a href="#cite_note-:1-4">[4]</a> discusses 3 categories of definitions that have been historically used. He argues in favor of the following definition [added clarity]: "Macroevolution is evolutionary change that is guided by sorting of interspecific [between-species] variation."

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> David Jablonski (2017)<a href="#cite_note-Jablosnki2017a-9">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jablosnki2017b-10">[7]</a> states: “Macroevolution, defined broadly as evolution above the species level, is thriving as a field.”

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> In his book “The Structure of Evolutionary Theory” (2002)<a href="#cite_note-Gould2002a-3">[3]</a> page 612, Stephen J. Gould describes the species as the basic unit of macroevolution, and compares speciation and extinction to birth and death in microevolutionary processes respectively: “In particular, and continuing to use species as a “type” example of individuality at higher levels, all evolutionary criteria apply to the species as a basic unit of macro-evolution. Species have children by branching (in our professional jargon, we even engender these offspring as “daughter species”). Speciation surely obeys principles of hereditary, for daughters, by strong constraints of homology, originate with phenotypes and genotypes closer to those of their parent than to any other species of a collateral lineage. Species certainly vary, for the defining property of reproductive isolation demands genetic differentiation from parents and collateral relatives. Finally, species interact with the environment in a causal way that can influence rates of birth (speciation) and death (extinction).”

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> In his paper proposing the theory of <a href="Species_selection" class="mw-redirect" title="Species selection">species selection</a>, Steven M. Stanly (1974)<a href="#cite_note-:0-2">[2]</a> described macroevolution as being evolution above the species level and decoupled from microevolution: “In reaction to the arguments of macromutationists who opposed Neo-Darwinism, modern evolutionists have forcefully asserted that the process of natural selection is responsible for both microevolution, or evolution within species, and evolution above the species level, which is also known as macroevolution or transpecific evolution. [...] Macroevolution is decoupled from microevolution, and we must envision the process governing its course as being analogous to natural selection but operating at a higher level of biological organization. In this higher-level process species become analogous to individuals, and speciation replaces reproduction”

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> The ‘Understanding Evolution’ website<a href="#cite_note-BerkeleyEdu1-14">[8]</a> by <a href="UCMP" class="mw-redirect" title="UCMP">UCMP</a>: “Microevolution happens on a small scale (within a single population), while macroevolution happens on a scale that transcends the boundaries of a single species”

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Thomas Holtz’s course GEOL331 lecture notes<a href="#cite_note-GEOL331a-16">[9]</a> discusses macroevolution observed in the fossil record:“Following these early attempted modifications of Darwinism, the rest of the 20th Century onward stayed largely within a Darwinian model. However, there were different major schools of thought. Many of these differences hinged on views of microevolution (evolutionary change within a species) and macroevolution (evolutionary change above the species level). While most agreed that the ultimate processes in macroevolution were ultimately microevolutionary, there were disagreement[s] whether the patterns produced were actually reducible to microevolutionary changes.”

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> The ‘Digital Atlas of Ancient Life’ website<a href="#cite_note-DAOAL1-18">[10]</a> by <a href="Paleontological_Research_Institution" title="Paleontological Research Institution">PRI</a> provides a very detailed historical overview for the definition of ‘macroevolution’: “The meaning of the term “macroevolution” has shifted over time. Indeed, early definitions do to not necessarily make much sense in light of our current understanding of evolution, yet are still worth considering to show how the field itself has evolved. Here we will consider usage of the term macroevolution in a few key works, as well as present a definition of macroevolution that we endorse. [...] Lieberman and Eldredge (2014) defined macroevolution as “the patterns and processes pertaining to the birth, death, and persistence of species” and we adopt this definition here.”

</li>

<li id="cite_note-BiotJordLinn-24"><a href="#cite_ref-BiotJordLinn_24-0">^</a> The terms ('biotypes', 'Jordanone', and 'Linneone') used here by Filipchenko were/are rarely used among non-Russian speaking scientists. According to Krasil'nikov (1958),<a href="#cite_note-Krasil1958a-23">[14]</a> these terms were used to describe the variety of forms observed within a single species: "With the development of genetics the concept of species widened according to the ideas of variability and heredity of organisms. New terms were introduced for the determination of species subdivision, such as "biotype", "pure line", "jardanon", "linneon", etc. ["Jardanon"--a simple means of classification of lower organisms. "Linneon"--the complex of "jardanons"--according to the Russian concept, the inner species variety of forms does not exceed the limits of qualitative unity of the species.]"

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-:4-57"><a href="#cite_ref-:4_57-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSearsBehringerRasweilerNiswander2006" class="citation journal cs1">Sears, Karen E.; Behringer, Richard R.; Rasweiler, John J.; Niswander, Lee A. (25 April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1458926">"Development of bat flight: Morphologic and molecular evolution of bat wing digits"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (17): 6581–6586. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PNAS..103.6581S">2006PNAS..103.6581S</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0509716103">10.1073/pnas.0509716103</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1458926">1458926</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16618938">16618938</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFStreicherWiens2017" class="citation journal cs1">Streicher, Jeffrey W.; Wiens, John J. (30 September 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5627172">"Phylogenomic analyses of more than 4000 nuclear loci resolve the origin of snakes among lizard families"</a>. Biology Letters. 13 (9): 20170393. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbl.2017.0393">10.1098/rsbl.2017.0393</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5627172">5627172</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28904179">28904179</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSkinnerLeeHutchinson2008" class="citation journal cs1">Skinner, Adam; Lee, Michael SY; Hutchinson, Mark N (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2596130">"Rapid and repeated limb loss in a clade of scincid lizards"</a>. BMC Evolutionary Biology. 8 (1): 310. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008BMCEE...8..310S">2008BMCEE...8..310S</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1471-2148-8-310">10.1186/1471-2148-8-310</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1471-2148">1471-2148</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2596130">2596130</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19014443">19014443</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSerrelliGontier2015" class="citation book cs1">Serrelli, Emanuele; Gontier, Nathalie (2015). Macroevolution: explanation, interpretation and evidence. Cham. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-319-15045-1</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/903489046">903489046</a>.</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

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<li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHaraImanishiSatta2012" class="citation journal cs1">Hara, Yuichiro; Imanishi, Tadashi; Satta, Yoko (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3752010">"Reconstructing the demographic history of the human lineage using whole-genome sequences from human and three great apes"</a>. Genome Biology and Evolution. 4 (11): 1133–1145. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgbe%2Fevs075">10.1093/gbe/evs075</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1759-6653">1759-6653</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3752010">3752010</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22975719">22975719</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFNaumovaLeeRychkovVlasova2013" class="citation journal cs1">Naumova, Oksana Yu; Lee, Maria; Rychkov, Sergei Yu; Vlasova, Natalia V.; Grigorenko, Elena L. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3557706">"Gene expression in the human brain: the current state of the study of specificity and spatiotemporal dynamics"</a>. Child Development. 84 (1): 76–88. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fcdev.12014">10.1111/cdev.12014</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1467-8624">1467-8624</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3557706">3557706</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23145569">23145569</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHeulin1990" class="citation journal cs1">Heulin, Benoît (1 May 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/10.1139/z90-147">"Étude comparative de la membrane coquillère chez les souches ovipare et vivipare du lézard Lacerta vivipara"</a>. Canadian Journal of Zoology. 68 (5): 1015–1019. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990CaJZ...68.1015H">1990CaJZ...68.1015H</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1139%2Fz90-147">10.1139/z90-147</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0008-4301">0008-4301</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFArrayagoBeaHeulin1996" class="citation journal cs1">Arrayago, Maria-Jesus; Bea, Antonio; Heulin, Benoit (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3892653">"Hybridization Experiment between Oviparous and Viviparous Strains of Lacerta vivipara: A New Insight into the Evolution of Viviparity in Reptiles"</a>. Herpetologica. 52 (3): 333–342. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-0831">0018-0831</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3892653">3892653</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFIiMaceyEspinozaLarson2000" class="citation journal cs1">Ii, James A. Schulte; Macey, J. Robert; Espinoza, Robert E.; Larson, Allan (January 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8312.2000.tb01670.x">"Phylogenetic relationships in the iguanid lizard genus Liolaemus: multiple origins of viviparous reproduction and evidence for recurring Andean vicariance and dispersal"</a>. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 69 (1): 75–102. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8312.2000.tb01670.x">10.1111/j.1095-8312.2000.tb01670.x</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> Grinin, L., Markov, A. V., Korotayev, A. Aromorphoses in Biological and Social Evolution: Some General Rules for Biological and Social Forms of Macroevolution / Social evolution & History, vol.8, num. 2, 2009 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.socionauki.ru/journal/articles/129272/">[1]</a>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li>What is marcroevolution? (pdf) <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/pala.12465">https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/pala.12465</a></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFAAAS2006" class="citation web cs1"><a href="American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="American Association for the Advancement of Science">AAAS, American Association for the Advancement of Science</a> (16 February 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060221125539/http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/pdf/0219boardstatement.pdf">"Statement on the Teaching of Evolution"</a> (PDF). aaas.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/pdf/0219boardstatement.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 21 February 2006. Retrieved 14 January 2007.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFIAP2006" class="citation book cs1">IAP, Interacademy Panel (21 June 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060705140010/http://www.interacademies.net/Object.File/Master/6/150/Evolution%20statement.pdf">IAP Statement on the Teaching of Evolution</a> (PDF). interacademies.net. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.interacademies.net/Object.File/Master/6/150/Evolution%20statement.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 5 July 2006. Retrieved 14 January 2007.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMyers2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="PZ_Myers" title="PZ Myers">Myers, P.Z.</a> (18 June 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060622031856/http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2006/06/ann_coulter_no_evidence_for_ev.php">"Ann Coulter: No Evidence for Evolution?"</a>. <a href="Pharyngula_(blog)" title="Pharyngula (blog)">Pharyngula</a>. <a href="ScienceBlogs" title="ScienceBlogs">ScienceBlogs</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2006/06/ann_coulter_no_evidence_for_ev.php">the original</a> on 22 June 2006. Retrieved 12 September 2007.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFNSTA2007" class="citation web cs1"><a href="National_Science_Teachers_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="National Science Teachers Association">NSTA, National Science Teachers Association</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080202043206/http://www.nsta.org/publications/evolution.aspx">"An NSTA Evolution Q&A"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nsta.org/publications/evolution.aspx">the original</a> on 2 February 2008. Retrieved 1 February 2008.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPinholster2006" class="citation web cs1">Pinholster, Ginger (19 February 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131019171834/http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/0219boardstatement.shtml">"AAAS Denounces Anti-Evolution Laws as Hundreds of K-12 Teachers Convene for 'Front Line' Event"</a>. aaas.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/0219boardstatement.shtml">the original</a> on 19 October 2013. Retrieved 14 January 2007.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/evo_47">Introduction to macroevolution</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/comdesc/">Macroevolution as the common descent of all life</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/paleonet/paleo21/mevolution.html">Macroevolution in the 21st century</a> Macroevolution as an independent discipline.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/macroevolution.html">Macroevolution FAQ</a></li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_biology753" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Evolutionary_biology753" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_evolution" title="Outline of evolution">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life">Timeline of evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li>

<li><a href="Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles" title="Index of evolutionary biology articles">Index</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li>

<li><a href="Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiation</a></li>

<li><a href="Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li>

<li><a href="Reciprocal_altruism" title="Reciprocal altruism">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li>

<li><a href="Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergence</a></li>

<li><a href="Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergence</a></li>

<li><a href="Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li>

<li><a href="Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence of evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">Evolutionary arms race</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_pressure" title="Evolutionary pressure">Evolutionary pressure</a></li>

<li><a href="Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li>

<li><a href="Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a>

<ul><li><a href="Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Event</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">Homology</a></li>

<li><a href="Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">Last universal common ancestor</a></li>

<li><a href="Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li>

<li><a href="Nonadaptive_radiation" title="Nonadaptive radiation">Non-adaptive radiation</a></li>

<li><a href="Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li>

<li><a href="Panspermia" title="Panspermia">Panspermia</a></li>

<li><a href="Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">Parallel evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling theory</a>

<ul><li><a href="Handicap_principle" title="Handicap principle">Handicap principle</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Species" title="Species">Species</a></li>

<li><a href="Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Taxonomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a>

<ul><li><a href="Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene-centered view of evolution</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Artificial selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li>

<li><a href="Fisher's_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li>

<li><a href="Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a>

<ul><li><a href="Inclusive_fitness" title="Inclusive fitness">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li>

<li><a href="Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a>

<ul><li><a href="Inbreeding_avoidance" title="Inbreeding avoidance">Inbreeding avoidance</a></li>

<li><a href="Kin_recognition" title="Kin recognition">Kin recognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a></li>

<li><a href="Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li>

<li><a href="Population" title="Population">Population</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sexual_selection_in_flowering_plants" title="Sexual selection in flowering plants">Flowering plants</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_selection_in_fungi" title="Sexual selection in fungi">Fungi</a></li>

<li><a href="Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Variation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Canalisation_(genetics)" title="Canalisation (genetics)">Canalisation</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_assimilation" title="Genetic assimilation">Genetic assimilation</a></li>

<li><a href="Inversion_(evolutionary_biology)" title="Inversion (evolutionary biology)">Inversion</a></li>

<li><a href="Modularity_(biology)" title="Modularity (biology)">Modularity</a></li>

<li><a href="Phenotypic_plasticity" title="Phenotypic plasticity">Phenotypic plasticity</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Evolution_of_bacteria" title="Evolution of bacteria">Bacteria</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Birds</a>

<ul><li><a href="Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">origin</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_brachiopods" title="Evolution of brachiopods">Brachiopods</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_molluscs" title="Evolution of molluscs">Molluscs</a>

<ul><li><a href="Evolution_of_cephalopods" title="Evolution of cephalopods">Cephalopods</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Dinosaur#Evolutionary_history" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Fungi</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_insects" title="Evolution of insects">Insects</a>

<ul><li><a href="Evolution_of_butterflies" title="Evolution of butterflies">butterflies</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">Mammals</a>

<li><a href="Canidae#Evolution" title="Canidae">canids</a>

<ul><li><a href="Evolution_of_the_wolf" title="Evolution of the wolf">wolves</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyena#Evolution" title="Hyena">hyenas</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">dolphins and whales</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_the_horse" title="Evolution of the horse">horses</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_Macropodidae" title="Evolution of Macropodidae">Kangaroos</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_primates" title="Evolution of primates">primates</a>

<ul><li><a href="Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">humans</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_lemurs" title="Evolution of lemurs">lemurs</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Plants</a>

<ul><li><a href="Pollinator-mediated_selection" title="Pollinator-mediated selection">pollinator-mediated</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_reptiles" title="Evolution of reptiles">Reptiles</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_spiders" title="Evolution of spiders">Spiders</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_tetrapods" title="Evolution of tetrapods">Tetrapods</a></li>

<li><a href="Viral_evolution" title="Viral evolution">Viruses</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Evolution_of_flagella" title="Evolution of flagella">Flagella</a></li>

<li><a href="Eukaryote#Origin_of_eukaryotes" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</a>

<ul><li><a href="Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">symbiogenesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Chromosome#Eukaryotes" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a></li>

<li><a href="Endomembrane_system#Evolution" title="Endomembrane system">endomembrane system</a></li>

<li><a href="Mitochondrion#Origin_and_evolution" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a></li>

<li><a href="Cell_nucleus#Evolution" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a></li>

<li><a href="Plastid#Origin" title="Plastid">plastids</a></li></ul></li>

<li>In animals

<li><a href="Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles" title="Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles">auditory ossicle</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">nervous system</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">brain</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="Biological_process" title="Biological process">processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Evolution_of_ageing" title="Evolution of ageing">Aging</a>

<ul><li><a href="Death#Evolution_of_aging_and_mortality" title="Death">Death</a></li>

<li><a href="Programmed_cell_death#Evolutionary_origin_of_mitochondrial_apoptosis" title="Programmed cell death">Programmed cell death</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Avian flight</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_biological_complexity" title="Evolution of biological complexity">Biological complexity</a></li>

<li><a href="Cooperation_(evolution)" title="Cooperation (evolution)">Cooperation</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_color_vision" title="Evolution of color vision">Color vision</a>

<ul><li><a href="Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">in primates</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></li>

<li><a href="Empathy#Evolution_across_species" title="Empathy">Empathy</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_eusociality" title="Evolution of eusociality">Eusociality</a></li>

<li><a href="Immune_system#Evolution_and_other_mechanisms" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li>

<li><a href="Metabolism#Evolution" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li>

<li><a href="Monogamy_in_animals" title="Monogamy in animals">Monogamy</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a></li>

<li><a href="Mosaic_evolution" title="Mosaic evolution">Mosaic evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Multicellular_organism#Evolutionary_history" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellularity</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anisogamy#Evolution" title="Anisogamy">Gamete differentiation/sexes</a></li>

<li><a href="Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">Life cycles/nuclear phases</a></li>

<li><a href="Mating_type" title="Mating type">Mating types</a></li>

<li><a href="Origin_and_function_of_meiosis" title="Origin and function of meiosis">Meiosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex-determination_system#Evolution" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_snake_venom" title="Evolution of snake venom">Snake venom</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Tempo_and_Mode_in_Evolution" title="Tempo and Mode in Evolution">Tempo and modes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Phyletic_gradualism" title="Phyletic gradualism">Gradualism</a>/<a href="Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a>/<a href="Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li>

<li><a href="Point_mutation" title="Point mutation">Micromutation</a>/<a href="Mutationism#Later_mutationist_theories" title="Mutationism">Macromutation</a></li>

<li><a href="Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a>/<a href="Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">Allopatric</a></li>

<li><a href="Anagenesis" title="Anagenesis">Anagenesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Catagenesis_(biology)" title="Catagenesis (biology)">Catagenesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Cladogenesis" title="Cladogenesis">Cladogenesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Cospeciation" title="Cospeciation">Cospeciation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_speciation" title="Ecological speciation">Ecological</a></li>

<li><a href="Hybrid_speciation" title="Hybrid speciation">Hybrid</a></li>

<li><a href="Nonecological_speciation" title="Nonecological speciation">Non-ecological</a></li>

<li><a href="Parapatric_speciation" title="Parapatric speciation">Parapatric</a></li>

<li><a href="Peripatric_speciation" title="Peripatric speciation">Peripatric</a></li>

<li><a href="Reinforcement_(speciation)" title="Reinforcement (speciation)">Reinforcement</a></li>

<li><a href="Sympatric_speciation" title="Sympatric speciation">Sympatric</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Evolutionary_ideas_of_the_Renaissance_and_Enlightenment" title="Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment">Renaissance and Enlightenment</a></li>

<li><a href="Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">Transmutation of species</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>

<ul><li><a href="Dialogues_Concerning_Natural_Religion" title="Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion">Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>

<ul><li><a href="On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li>

<li><a href="Blending_inheritance" title="Blending inheritance">Blending inheritance</a></li>

<li><a href="Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li>

<li><a href="The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">The eclipse of Darwinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">History of molecular evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Extended_evolutionary_synthesis" title="Extended evolutionary synthesis">Extended evolutionary synthesis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution" title="Alternatives to Darwinian evolution">Alternatives</a>

<ul><li><a href="Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li>

<li><a href="Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li>

<li><a href="Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Mutationism" title="Mutationism">Mutationism</a></li>

<li><a href="Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li>

<li><a href="Structuralism_(biology)" title="Structuralism (biology)">Structuralism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">Spandrel</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology in biology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory of evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a>

<li><a href="Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</a></li>

<li><a href="Protocell" title="Protocell">Protocell</a></li>

<li><a href="Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li>

<li> <a href="Portal%3AEvolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Portal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-28" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Macroevolution&oldid=1303058491">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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